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Author: e2ip Technologies | Contact us [https://e2ip.com/contact/] Flexible and thermoformable printed electronics have become increasingly popular in recent years as they offer a cost-effective and versatile alternative to traditional electronics. The ability to print electronic devices onto a variety of substrates, including plastics, textiles, and even paper, has opened new avenues for innovation in Smart Structural SurfacesTM. In this article, we will discuss the applications and challenges of three types of flexible and thermoformable printed electronics that require fine line printing capabilities: Capacitive Touch Switches, Transparent Printed Heaters, and Metasurfaces. Capacitive touch switches, such as CapFlex®, use capacitive sensing to turn any surface into a touch-controlled electronic smart surface. These switches are typically made of a thin, flexible printed circuit layer sandwiched between a backing layer and a top overlay. The compact design eliminates the need for additional mechanical parts, and the surface becomes the screen. With CapFlex®, designers can create customized touch controls on a variety of surfaces, including plastics, glass, and even curved or irregularly shaped surfaces. Transparent printed heaters use fine line printing process to generate heat, making them more energy efficient by improving the heat diffusion. The design pattern allows the technology to adjust the desired temperature and transparency according to the electrical requirements and the applications. The materials used in this process are all qualified for both indoor and outdoor applications, making them suitable for a wide range of applications including new possibilities for Smart Structural SurfacesTM. Fine Line printing process is applicable in a lot of different industries and applications. Advanced Screen Printing requires a lot of adjustments to obtain the desired results. Regarding screen printing, two main criteria must be considered: The robustness of the screen: The size of your pattern will dictate the size of your screen. Fine line meshes are expensive and, for some of them, fragile due to the wire diameter required to achieve resolution as small as 20um. Define the exact requirements and work with your supplier to select the best match for your application. The ink: most inks used in PE right now are made of flakes and solvents. The critical point is the size of the particles when it comes to fine line. Nanoparticles or particle free inks with low solvent evaporation or UV curable inks should prioritized. To overcome these challenges, engineers must continue to develop new materials and design for manufacturing that address these issues. Advances in materials science, ink formulations, and printing technologies can help to improve the robustness of flexible and Thermoformable printed electronics, making them more durable and long-lasting. Additionally, advances in automation can help to reduce the time and cost associated with mass production, making large-format screens more accessible to a wider range of industries. In conclusion, flexible and thermoformable printed electronics offer a wide range of applications and benefits over traditional electronics. They enable almost any surface to become a touch-controlled electronic smart surface, offer improved safety and energy efficiency, and can help to enhance the propagation of wireless signals. Despite the challenges associated with the adoption of this technology, continued innovation and development can help to overcome these issues, making flexible and thermoformable printed electronics a more viable option for a wide range of industries.

Ryojiro Tominaga Company: Fuji Corporation In recent years, 3D printer technology that can manufacture bare PCBs using digital printing technology for both conductors and insulators has been developed. However, it is essential to optimize the SMT process in accordance with the transformation of the bare PCBs manufacturing process for the practical application of this technology. Fuji will introduce a novel machine that combines the additive manufacturing process of bare PCBs and low-temperature SMT technology optimized for this purpose SAVE THE DATE

Andree Maindok Speaker: Celanese Silver sintering pastes and films are widely used for attaching SiC dies to their substrates in modern power electronics. They offer mechanical stability to well above the use temperatures (>200C), high thermal conductivity, and do not form brittle inter-metallics. They provide a strong, high reliability bond, especially when sintered with pressure assistance. However, they are not always easy to work with. Developing a product that will sinter at modest temperatures and with modest levels of pressure often results in an unstable formulation that requires cold storage and transport. These products then require conditioning to bring them up to working temperatures before they can be used. If the product cannot be dried before die placement, die size will be limited, or reliability will suffer due to trapped organics left after the sintering process. We have developed several novel paste formulations for sintered silver die, heat sink and top of die attach. They are shelf stable for months at room temperature, offer long open working times with little or no viscosity drift. They can be metal mask stencil printed syringe dispensed, or jetted, and are dried before placement (even when dispensed), allowing large area dies and substrates to be bonded without loss of reliability or thermal performance. We also have new developments in high reliability performance for large area heat sink attachment at reduced temperature and pressure. This allows attachment of encapsulated die/substrate structures onto heat sinks without damage to the organic encapsulant. Extensive reliability test data for these novel formulations will be shared that I SAVE THE DATE

OLED is widely known as the highest quality display on the market, used in flagship products such as high-end TVs and smartphones. Many of the early promises of OLEDs have been realized and commercialized, including their ultra-thinness and potential for flexibility. However, today's flexible OLEDs are still fabricated in much the same way as rigid OLEDs on glass. And most of the innovation in the field is still aimed at high-end consumer products. At Sinovia, we are using roll-to-roll flexographic printing to fabricate bottom-emitting OLEDs suitable for use in segmented, indicator, and passive matrix displays at price points that can compete with incumbent LCDs and LED assemblies. This is enabled by our proprietary materials technology and our in-house process, along with some key supplier partnerships. In this talk, I will cover our core technology, our development status, applications of our displays, and our future plans as we move toward mass production. SAVE THE DATE

We introduce a groundbreaking advancement in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) coil technology that addresses key challenges in medical imaging. Leveraging screen-printing techniques, our approach results into flexible, lightweight MRI coil arrays with enhanced coil performance and better patient experience. We report on the design and characterization of a 12-channel RF receiver coil array, including signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) studies performed in phantoms, volunteers, and patients. Phantom tests involving the pediatric printed coil indicated noise covariance matrices on par with those of the commercial coil, with a minor SNR reduction for the printed coil. Our work included a comprehensive study that assess the performance and acceptance of a pediatric-sized screen-printed flexible MRI coil array, contrasting it with conventional coil technology. Study participants, ranging from 2 days to 12 years in age, underwent MRI scans using the pediatric printed array. The results were benchmarked against historical control subjects who were scanned using a commercial 32-channel cardiac array at 3 Tesla. A survey of caregivers and clinicians demonstrated strong acceptance of the printed coil, garnering an average score of 4.1 out of 5, indicating a preference for the printed coil. The diagnostic quality of images produced using the printed coil was highly rated, achieving a quality score of 4.5. SAVE THE DATE

Speaker: Neil Chilton Company: Printed Electronics Ltd PEL is both an experienced manufacturer and specialist machine supplier for printable electronics. At TechBlick we present together with our key partner SIJ. In this presentation we will explain where we have used our knowledge to determine the optimal print methods for applications ranging from large area to ultra-fine-line printing. We will focus on new developments in SIJ including the high productivity multi-nozzle systems. SAVE THE DATE

Hee Hyun Lee, Ph.D. Lead Scientist at Celanese Micromax™ Electronic Inks and Pastes The global printed electronics market is huge and estimated to reach USD 23 billion in revenue by 2026, growing at a CAGR of 18.3% from 2023 to 2028 [1]. Increased demand for printed electronic products in automotive and the growth of consumer electronics are two key fueling factors to drive the market growth. The two critical segments require various reliable printed electronic products for applications from low temperature to high temperature. The key enabler for reliable device fabrication in printed electronics is functional inks with tunable electrical properties such as conductivity, dielectric strength, and electrical resistance. Celanese Micromax™ Electronic Inks and Pastes is a global supplier of thick film pastes/inks and recently launched HT (High Temperature) ink series - HT602/603 resistors, HT702 dielectric and HT802 conductive inks for high-temperature and high-power applications. HT series inks can be printed additively by using screen printing or nozzle dispensing process on various flexible/rigid substrates including Kapton® FPC, Kapton® RS, FR-4, Aluminum, Alumina, and glass. The operation temperature of conventional PTF (Polymer Thick Film) ink is typically limited up to 200°C due to the thermal degradation issue of polymeric resin in ink formulations. In the printed electronic industry, high-temperature and high-power applications often require operation temperatures above 200°C. HT series inks were developed by using novel polyimide resin whose thermal resistant temperature is up to 300°C. Polyimide resin is flexible thermoplastic allowing much more flexibility compared to rigid thermoset Epoxy resins that have been used for the majority of high-temperature applications. Another key benefit of our polyimide resin is its chemical resistance. The unique combination of high-temperature resistance, flexibility and chemical resistance of HT series inks is expected to provide solutions for new high-temperature applications in the printed electronics industry which couldn’t be achievable by conventional PTF inks. This article will discuss key technical features of HT inks and their potential applications. HT602/603 resistors Printable resistor ink can be used to deposit passive resistive components directly on a substrate. Applications include heated floors, pressure sensors and variable potentiometers. HT602 and HT603 were formulated by adding different types of Carbon black powders in a polyimide medium for high-temperature or high-power applications. The average Rs (Resistivity) is 25 Ω/□/mil for HT602 and 300 Ω/□/mil for HT603, respectively. Two HT resistors may be blended to meet specific Rs targets. If a higher Rs value is required than Rs of HT603, HT702 dielectric can be blended with HT603. Figure 1 shows (a) plot of Rs vs. blend ratio of HT603 and HT602, and (b) Rs vs. blend ratio of HT603 and HT702. Figure 1. (a) Plot of Rs vs. blend ratio between HT602 and HT603; (b) Plot of Rs vs. blend ratio between HT603 and HT702. For reliable device operation, the resistance variation of the printed resistor should be minimal with temperatures. TCR (Temperature Coefficient of Resistance) of two HT resistors were measured at four different temperatures as shown in Figure 2. TCR data of HT602, 603 showed much lower values vs. conventional resistor inks (7082M, 7102) formulated with non-polyimide resin demonstrating more stable resistance values of HT resistors with temperatures. Figure 2. TCR comparison between HT602/603 containing polyimide and 7102/7082M containing non-polyimide resin. STOL (Short time overload) test was also performed to check how high power HT602 and HT603 could endure without resistance change. Chip resistor’s standard criterion is less than +/- 1% of R change up to 2.5 times of desired operating voltage. Different size of HT resistor pattern was screen printed over Ag electrode as shown in Figure 3 and 0.5mm x 0.5mm printed resistor was used to monitor resistance deviation during STOL test. Test condition is 5sec dwelling time with step increase of voltage. Both HT602 and HT603 showed excellent stable resistance up to 200W/cm2 power density (Figure 4). Figure 3. HT603 printed over Ag electrode on Alumina substrate for STOL test. Figure 4. STOL test to check Resistance change with step-changing voltage (power density). HT702 dielectric To prevent mechanical damage or chemical oxidation of electronic circuits on Flex or Rigid PCB (printed circuit board), the protective layer is applied on top of the metalized circuit. A Conventional protective layer in the PCB industry is applied by photoimagible soldermask (typically epoxy material) on the rigid substrate or high-pressure assisted thermal lamination of Coverlay (polyimide with acrylic adhesive) on flex circuit. Both photoimaging of solder mask and coverlay lamination not only require multiple process steps but also generate waste of materials. The incumbent protective layers also have deficiencies on the material side; the thermoset epoxy solder mask is typically not flexible and coverlay contains acrylic adhesive which is not thermal resistant above 200°C. HT702 formulated with thermoplastic polyimide resin is more flexible than thermoset epoxy solder mask and has much higher thermal resistance than acrylic adhesive used in coverlay. The unique combination of flexibility and thermal resistance of HT702 is expected to create new applications in PCB industry where incumbent protective materials have a deficiency. In addition, direct printable HT702 dielectric ink can lower the overall cost of ownership by decreasing process steps and material waste. Good dielectric strength (BDV > 0.5kV), excellent chemical resistance and excellent adhesion on various substrates are additional benefits of HT702. To achieve good dielectric strength and uniform coverage without pinhole defects, 2~3 printing and drying cycles are recommended. HT802 conductor HT802 is highly conducive and thermal-resistant ink formulated with silver powders and polyimide resin. High thermal/chemical resistant polyimide resin enables HT802 to be applicable to high-temperature applications such as electrodes for heaters or platable conductors where the plating process involves a caustic acid/base bath process. For example, figure 5(a) shows the HT802 electrode printed on 16in. x 16in. Kapton® RS flexible heater. Uniform heating performance was achieved up to 240°C (Figure 5(b)). Figure 5. (a) HT802 printed on Kapton® RS film as an electrode for flexible heater fabrication. (b) Uniform heating up to 240°C was demonstrated. Table 1 shows the performance of HT802 with different cure conditions. Resistivity decreased with higher cure temperatures while maintaining excellent adhesion on Kapton® film. Interestingly, crease resistance also became better (lower % increase of electrical resistance) when HT802 was cured at higher temperatures. Table 1. Resistivity, adhesion, and crease resistance of HT802 with cure condition. HT802 was screen printed on Kapton® film. Summary Micromax™ Electronic Inks and Pastes launched a new HT product line using noble Polyimide resin chemistry for high-temperature printed electronics applications. The unique combination of high thermal/chemical resistance, flexibility, and additive printability of HT inks is expected to provide solutions for various high-temperature applications on both flexible and rigid substrates. Visit our website: https://www.celanese.com/products/micromax to find a technical datasheet of HT products [2]. References [1] Printed Electronics Market Revenue Trends and Growth Drivers | MarketsandMarkets [2] Micromax™ Electronic Inks and Pastes (celanese.com)

Speaker: Arne Casteleyn company: Quad Industries In this presentation, we will discuss the use of printed electronics in the development of customised electrode patches and smart textiles. Quad Industries has leveraged this technology to create innovative wearable sports, healthcare and comfort products that offer several advantages over traditional approaches. Through the use of practical use cases, we will showcase the benefits of printed electronics, including enhanced comfort, flexibility, and functionality. Our presentation will demonstrate how this technology is revolutionizing the field of wearable devices, and we will provide insights into the potential for further innovation in this exciting area. SAVE THE DATE

Novo Nordisk A/S supplies nearly 50% of the world’s insulin for treatment of diabetes, and 34 million people are using our diabetes care products. We are also develop and supplying medicine for growth disorder, hemophilia, and obesity. In Manufacturing Development - AP Innovation & Development, we are working on concepts for future aseptic production. As part of this we are developing a new concept, where we need to place a conductive pattern on the outside of the 3D surface of a plastic part. On top of being in a aseptic environment the conductive pattern and the plastic part will also have drug contact, so the materials have to be compatible with our drug products. This gives a very limited solution space and I would love to get suggestions on how to do it. SAVE THE DATE

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How ACI Material’s cavitation dispersion process improves the electrical & mechanical properties of materials used in additive manufacturing of circuits and composites Improving the Electrical & Mechanical Properties of Materials Michael Mastropietro, VP of Engineering, ACI Materials Many people are familiar with the negative effects hydrodynamic cavitation can have on bulk solid materials such as nautical propeller blades, fluid pump parts, and other manufacturing equipment. For example, the pitting of a boat propeller blade due to recurring cavitation can be seen in Figure 1. However, cavitation can also be used advantageously as well. ACI Materials has successfully developed and patented equipment and processes to control hydrodynamic cavitation in order to produce unique dispersions, formulated inks and pastes, as well as high aspect ratio nanoparticle and ‘2D’ filler particle masterbatches. To better understand how this is possible see Figure 2, which is a schematic showing the implosive collapse of vapor bubbles formed under vacuum in a liquid medium near a solid surface. Figure 1. Pitting of propeller blade due to hydrodynamic cavitation When the spherical bubbles are collapsed on surfaces, they form liquid micro-jets focusing the energy to extremely localized areas. When these vacuum vapor bubbles are created and collapsed under the right conditions, they can release a tremendous amount of energy via these jets. ACI is able to process highly concentrated dispersions of solids (very high solid surface area) making it very efficient at using the energy of cavitation to break apart agglomerated particles versus losing the energy to heat. ACI is able to process viscous liquid continuous phases such as polymer solutions, and these are highly effective at keeping the particles dispersed via robust steric stabilization of the particle surfaces. Figure 2. Schematic showing the collapse of a vapor bubble to form a liquid micro-jet during cavitation Figure 3. Images showing agglomerates prior to (left) and after cavitation processing (right) in carbon nanotubes (top) and silver microparticles (bottom). ACI makes materials that enable the environmentally responsible additive manufacturing of electronics. ACI's proprietary Cavitation process is a closed-loop system, which contains all volatile organic compounds (VOCs) within the machine during the dispersion process. The material is also removed from the process in a closed container. Preventing the loss of VOCs during the production process not only provides the advantage of more consistent products, but it also eliminates the uncontrolled release of VOCs that can occur during other traditional mixing processes. As a company focused on sustainability, we are thankful to be able to reduce the release of VOCs during production in this way. The end result of ACI's cavitation dispersion process on carbon nanotubes and silver microparticles can be seen in Figure 3. As can be seen in the processed material images on the right side, the number of aggregates has been almost reduced to nothing, and quite possibly the resulting structure are agglomerates that can no longer be separated. This process of breaking down the agglomerates in a paste can yield rheology improvements that can lead to superior slump behavior (reduced), allow faster printing rates, lower yield stress, etc. The following section explains and graphically depicts how cavitation results in dried coatings with superior mechanical and electrical properties. Lower volume resistivity (superior conductivity) Despite the claims made by manufacturers of thrifted conductive filler particles, the lowest volume resistivity materials under standard ambient conditions are those with the highest metal filler content in the dry films. Specifically sinterable nanoparticle and metalorganic inks which can achieve near bulk (3x) resistivity at ideal film thicknesses. That performance is not without compromise, as to achieve those values is to create a porous, near polymer-free, metal film. Therefore, adhesion is typically limited as well as mechanical properties such as flex ductility. As a result, decades after widespread research began on nano inks, thermoset and solvent/thermoplastic-based polymer thick film (PTF) materials have been the bulk of commercially sold electrical conductors for additive manufacture of circuits. Today ACI provides Alchemy series inks that offer the best features of both sinterable inks and PTF inks. Some benefits of the Alchemy series inks are: Lower sheet resistance than PTF, nanoparticle, and metal complex-based inks Faster cure times than traditional nanoparticle-based sinterable inks Nano-like volume resistivity (conductivity), but in less time Superior hard crease survivability compared to even PTF inks Allow high-resolution printing without compromising resistivity and sheet resistance Enables reflow soldering using specific low-temperature solder pastes One benefit of the Alchemy inks enabling reflow soldering using specific low-temperature solder pastes is high speed/high throughput solder-based attach of surface mount components. This results in cost savings during circuit manufacturing. Before the ACI Alchemy inks, additively manufactured printed circuits needed electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) to attach surface mount components. These require batch curing for significantly longer times than solderbased attach, which is used in traditional etched copper Flexible Printed Circuits (FPC). By enabling additive manufacturing of flexible circuits that are cost-competitive with traditional FPC technology, the Alchemy series inks are providing companies a scalable option that allows them to move away from the use of etchants used in traditional circuit manufacturing. Now companies can conserve energy and water and realize cost savings by not spending money on the treatment processes that are required for waste streams that result from traditional circuit manufacture. Figure 4. Mechanism of film formation during drying and curing of PTF and nano inks The films resulting from PTF conductors are essentially conductive composites, so the electrical benefits described are equally applicable to structural materials for building composites. Understanding why dispersion is so important to the performance of printed conductors first requires a basic understanding of the microstructures these materials have. Figure 4 is a schematic showing how solvent-based PTF and sinterable nano inks develop micro-structure going from a wet to dried or ‘cured’ state. As can be seen in the middle drawings and right-most SEM images, the resulting dry films have voids in the packing of the metal filler. The increase in resistivity observed in films of deposited additive conductors compared to ‘bulk’ metals comes from the following sources: Particle packing defects in the dried films due to agglomerates not dispersed, or aggregates formed during traditional 3-roll milling Polymer required to bind the particles into cohesive/adhesive films and organics used to stabilize and enhance wetting of conductive filler particles Porosity or voids resulting from poor dispersion of fillers, due to solvent evaporation rate, or localized nanoparticle aggregation prior to good coalescence during drying/sintering Oxide layers or more typically chemisorbed layers of organic ligands on the surface of the conductive filler particles from the manufacturing processes Grain boundaries within metallic ‘flakes’ which are made by attrition of spherical particles or at the sintered ‘necks’ that form in nano inks Non-ideal rheology (typically poor levelling) leading to mesoscopic variation in film roughness (Rz) with traditional screen printing, thus wasted conductor Hydrodynamic cavitation is more effective at minimizing many of these factors when compared to traditional manufacturing methods. Improved dispersion of filler particles can result in both improved particle packing, and reduced amount of polymer binders needed for cohesion and adhesion to substrates. The cavitation process is very effective in producing carbon-based inks and coatings (graphite, graphene, carbon black, CNTs) that have a higher volume of solid material. Through the cavitation process, these fillers achieve a high level of dispersion, and close to nominal primary particle size. This allows for the production of inks and coatings that have resistivities down to 10 Ω·cm, using only carbon materials as conductive fillers. This is possible with cavitation because the mechanism of micro bubbles imploding and releasing immense localized energy on the particles surface, will not damage the morphology of the particle. This is not the case for traditional mixers like a three-roll mill and ball mill, which damage the particles aspect ratio, which is crucial for maximum conductivity. ACI’s cavitation process can also operate at higher viscosities than traditional mixers, which is crucial for fillers like CNTs, as these inks and pastes will initially increase in viscosity as the CNT’s unbundle, before the viscosity starts to drop from these unbundled tubes becoming more dispersed. With some filler particles, cavitation is believed to be capable of removing excess organic from the surface of filler particles, potentially reducing inter-particle distance in the dry films. In the left picture in Figure 5 (also labeled Figure 1 in description from source1) is a 2D box model showing the reduced packing volume resulting from breaking down all agglomerates in a model particle system. The middle picture shows what may be the result of less effective dispersion processes where you have some amount of agglomerates and dispersed primary particles. Some degree of agglomeration of particles is likely normal for a traditional conductive paste manufacturing processes like 3-roll milling. Figure 5. Schematic representation of the change in effective volume or maximum packing as a function of the increase in the number of unbroken bonds. These unbroken bonds can be considered to either increase the effective volume of solids or decrease the maximum packing. As discussed below, both situations are equivalent. Schematic taken from Robert J Flatt and Paul Bowden, Yodel: A Yield Stress Model for Suspensions, J.Am. Ceram. Soc., 90, 1038–1044, 2007 The picture on the right is typical of what you may expect with a system with poorly dispersed agglomerated particles. This is what might be expected using only low shear mixing like is used to wet out the system before a higher shear final mixing process, or with very difficult to disperse materials like carbon nanotubes. An example of the rheology and electrical performance improvements that can be achieved in a silver PTF material made via cavitation versus traditional 3 roll milling can be seen in Table 1. This work was done on a fine silver microparticle containing ink for touchscreen applications where lower resistivity and better yield of fine lines/spacing without shorting is highly desirable. A microscope image showing the ability of the paste to maintain tight spacing around the 90 degree turns of a display bezel can be seen in Figure 7. Figure 6. Lines drawn indicating percolated paths for electrical current to flow in dried conductor films Improved mechanical properties of composites Dispersion of fillers in structural composites is also an area where ACI materials believes its process is superior. In particular, its ability to disperse high aspect ratio fillers and those with a dimension in the nanometer regime such as carbon nanotubes, hexagonal boron nitride, boron nitride nanotubes, clays, etc. Conventional processes like ball and attritor milling often used to disperse agglomerates down to primary particles, can over the long time required, damage a large population of the particles by crushing them. Because the shear induced by hydrodynamic cavitation is not generated by creating very small gaps between blades or media, damage to the particles can be prevented. This is very desirable as it ensures the best chance to maintain the original aspect ratio of the primary particles and to maximize the strength of the composite. Figure 7. Microscope image showing high-resolution capabilities of silver paste made via cavitation More generally, good dispersion with wetting of the entire surface of all particles by the polymer system should also lead to the increased strength of a composite. Figure 8 below tries to graphically depict the impact of poorly dispersed agglomerates on the wetting of the particles by a polymer. Red lines have been drawn at places where voids due to poor dispersion could lead to fracture sites when stresses are applied to the material. As can be seen looking from the right, to middle, to left images, improved dispersion will yield fewer voids and defects to the composite. There are numerous scientific papers showing that often without good dispersion, adding CNTs to composites can actually degrade elongation at break, tensile strength and toughness (references 2-4). DAC mixers are capable of subjecting materials to very high shear rates, but don’t necessarily do well with strongly held-together agglomerates or aggregates of fillers. Traditional mixers, like three-roll mills and ball mills, have been used to mix CNTs, but damage the particles and lose the aspect ratio. Figure 8. Impact of agglomerates and poor dispersion on mechanical strength of composite Also of great importance to some structural 3D printing methods is the size of the largest agglomerates in the system after dispersion (D100 particle size). Agglomerates can clog the nozzles of the printing system requiring machine downtime, time-consuming cleaning, or increased usage of disposable wetted parts. The size of agglomerates in many commercial carbon nanotube dispersion and polymer masterbatch products sold by the manufacturers can be 100’s of microns in size. It is generally accepted practice that a 10:1 ratio between orifice inner diameter and maximum particle size must be used. This means that only coarse structures could be printed with current off-the-shelf CNT products. ACI’s cavitation process can dramatically reduce top size dramatically, which is important in many applications and use cases. References Robert J Flatt and Paul Bowden, Yodel: A Yield Stress Model for Suspensions, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 90, 1038–1044, 2007 H. Patanwala, D. Hong, S. Vora, B. Bognet, A. Ma, The Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed Carbon Nanotube-Polylactic Acid Composites, Polymer Composites, 1-12, 2017; DOI:10.1002/pc S. Dul, L. Fambri, A. Pegoretti. Filaments Production and Fused Deposition Modelling of ABS/Carbon Nanotubes Composites, nanomaterials 2018, 8, 49; doi:10.3390/nano8010049. J. Ervina, M. Mariatti, S. Hamdan. Effect of Filler Loading on the Tensile Properties of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube and Graphene Nanopowder filled Epoxy Composites, Procedia Chemistry 1